Institutional Development in Public Transport Policy: A Literature Review

This article discusses institutional development in public transport policy in terms of concepts and theories. The institutionalized organization must establish and maintain a network in its environment to keep it alive and functioning, by adjusting to the relationships in an organization's life. The development of the transportation system is carried out in a sustainable, consistent, and integrated manner, both inter and between modes, with other development sectors and taking into account the existence of the local government. The policies formulated by the city government should take into account all available modes of public transportation and may be utilized by the city community. The design of vehicles that will be used as public transportation must also be adapted to the needs of the community and conditions in urban areas.


Introduction
One of the weaknesses in administration in developing countries is the institutional element, even though development requires institutional support. The institutions created in developing countries are generally traditional institutions or a legacy of colonialism. Development as a complex activity, covering various disciplines, sectors, interests, and activities, requires institutions that are able to overcome and synergize these various aspects. Institutional in this case has a broad meaning, which can be in the form of formal organizations such as bureaucracy, business world, political parties, but also economic institutions such as markets, legal institutions, and so on.
Many concepts are developed in institutional development or administrative development. Among them, the earliest assessment and many become a reference for administrative experts. Institutional development is a pattern that shows an increase in the effectiveness of the use of available resources to achieve predetermined goals. One of the thoughts on the institutional trend towards the development administration approach so far is institution building (Esman, 1988). The concept of institution building can be interpreted as development or institutional development and institutional development (Fogel & Madhavan, 1994).
The administrative conditions in developing countries in the management of development show that one of the weaknesses faced lies in the institutional aspect, in addition to human resources. Meanwhile, the development process requires support and institutional strengthening. Esman (1988) as the main architect of the institutional development model says that institutionalization is a concept related to certain patterns of relationships and activities in a formal organization and social force and obtains support from their environment. Institutional development is a planned perspective of social institutions, which focuses on two dimensions, namely micro and macro changes. Goldsmith, 1992;Acharya, 1997). Guiding concepts formulate institutional development as planning, structuring, and fostering of organizations or reorganizing to bring about changes in The perspective of institutional development is interpreted as a framework for a directed social change strategy (Spaargaren & Mol, 1992). Sociologically, institutions refer to normative patterns that formulate ways of acting or social relationships that are expected with this perspective which can be interpreted as a formal organization that encourages institutions and that maintains to change. A deep understanding of the nature of institutional development and development can be explained in five institutional dimensions, namely leadership, doctrine, programs, resources, and internal structure (Rudzki, 1995;John, 1999). Underlying these concepts from the institutional dimension is the perspective of social change related to theory, namely in societies that are pursuing modernization, the development process related to the recognition and acceptance of many changes and innovations, in a contemporary framework, most of these changes are not occurs because of automatic evolution, and as a vehicle for deliberate innovations requiring complex formal organizations. The explanation of the five dimensions of Esman's (1986) institutional development is:

Leadership
Leadership is seen as the most important and critical dimension in institutional development because the process of deliberate change requires intensive and skilled management, and can profoundly increase human capabilities, both in terms of internal and environmental relations. Leadership is primarily seen as a group in which various roles such as decision making such as courts can be distributed in various patterns among the leadership group. The leadership group consists of holders of leadership positions who have been formally appointed, as well as those who continue to exercise important influence over institutional activities. Leadership has a central position in any analysis of institutional development. The essence of leadership is the handover and distribution of resources in order to achieve certain goals.
The leadership dimension includes the formulation of policies and programs by making normative and empirical choices regarding the optimal use of organizational resources. One of the leadership characteristics that can encourage the success of institutional development is a sharp view of a strategy related to the planned use of resources in the organization within a certain time period.
The importance of leadership is pleased. With the availability of resources. The sooner a goal must be achieved, the more important it is for the contribution of leadership to formulate productive strategies. In addition, due to the scarcity of resources in an organization, it is very important for the leadership function to determine priorities in institutional development.

Doctrine
Doctrine is formulated as a specification of the values, objectives, and operational methods that underlie social action. Doctrine is seen as a series of projecting factors, both within the organization itself and in its external environment. The doctrine concerns the value of organizational output and productivity, and the horizons used. The role of doctrine in explaining these supposed good ends is usually emphasized in its function of judging more suitable means. Specific productivity can only be judged in terms of time. Doctrine can make the institutionalization process more efficient and effective by confirming the objectives and means that are appropriately used so as to contribute to institutional development. The program refers to certain actions related to the implementation of functions which are the output of an organization. Thus, programming is the translation of doctrine into concrete patterns of action and allocation of energy and other resources within the organization and in relation to the external environment. In other words, the program is the manifestation of doctrine into the practical activities of an organization. To analyze a program, it is necessary to consider synchronization, coordination, and available budget capacity.

Program
Strategy in institutional development requires that the program enhances the resource position of the organization. The conventional view of organizational theory is that resources must be obtained from the environment through organizational productivity, which is an implication of the existence of an organizational program. The faster the achievement of results from a program is important for efficient and effective allocation through a program implementation strategy.

Resources
Resources are human, financial, and technological in an organization. The issues involved in mobilizing and ensuring the adequate and reliable availability of these resources affect every aspect of the activities of the organization. The timing of making productive use of resources possible. Uphoff (1986) states that organizational resources are related to production factors in an organization, namely economic resources, information, status, strength, authority, legality, and support.

Internal structure
The internal structure is defined as the structure and processes held for the operation of the organization and its maintenance. The division of roles in the organization, internal authority patterns, communication systems, people's commitment to the doctrine, and programs of the organization. The structure represents the flow pattern of resources within the organization so that the efficiency and productivity of the organization depend on synchronization, coordination, and the ability to process information flows.
The institutional development approach strategy effectively considers the internal structure and organizational dynamics simultaneously. Most structural analysis has tried to understand the interrelated functions in the organization to achieve the necessary changes in value and structure in the formulation of action strategies as a basis for an analysis of the organizational environment.
Institutionalized organizations must establish and maintain a network in their environment to stay alive and function, by adjusting to the relationships in organizational life (Smith-Doerr, 2005). There are four types of linkages, namely the possible links, namely the existence of organizations and social groups that control the allocation of authority and resources required by the organization to function, functional links, which means that organizations that carry out functions by providing input and utilizing the outputs of the organization. the organization. Normative linkages, that is, with organizations having norms and values that are relevant to the doctrine and program of the organization, and scattered links, namely factors in society that cannot be clearly identified by members in a formal organization.

Public Transparency Policy
In principle, public transportation is all means of transportation in which passengers do not travel using their own vehicles. This is as stated by White (1995) which states that the transportation policy made by the State covers all modes including shipping and aviation and waterways.
Theoretically, good public transportation should be able to carry passengers from the nearest starting point from the place of departure to the endpoint of their destination without stopping or being cut off due to the vacuum of the fleet. Therefore, local governments need to design an adequate public transportation system with various existing modes. In general, public transportation in urban areas is motorcycle taxis, taxis, city transportation, and mass transportation. This is the basis for which the policies formulated by the city government should pay attention to all available modes of public transportation and may be utilized by the city community.
The design of vehicles that will be used as public transportation must also be adapted to the needs of the community and conditions in urban areas. Some of the principles of vehicle design for public transportation are: fuel-efficient, maintenance and ordering costs, can carry as many passengers as possible with a comfortable number limit, easy to get on and off, a soft suspension and transmission system, and so on (White, 1995).
Public transportation, therefore, must be designed as best as possible so that it can provide a sense of comfort, a sense of security, easy and cheap to reach all levels of society who want it. If this can be fulfilled by the public transportation system developed by the city government, then city people will have a preference for using public transportation rather than private vehicles.

Urban Transportation System Development
One of the policies for developing the urban transportation system is by developing mass transportation that is orderly, smooth, and efficient and can be reached by all levels of society. So that transportation policy can run effectively, that transportation as the lifeblood of economic, socio-cultural, defense, security, and political life has the embodiment of archipelago insight, strengthens resilience, and strengthens relations between nations in an effort to achieve that in order to strengthen planning and realize a national transportation network effective and efficient, it is necessary to apply a systemic approach in one unit.
Transportation arrangements that are organized in a separate system from road transportation, rail transportation, river and lake transportation, crossing transportation, sea transportation, air transportation, and pipeline transportation, each of which consists of facilities and infrastructure that interact with the support of software and thinking tools. establishing a system of transportation services that is effective and efficient, integrated and harmonious, which serves to serve the movement of people and / or goods between national nodes or cities, and from national nodes or cities to abroad or vice versa.
Transportation arrangements that are organized in a separate system from road transportation, rail transportation, river and lake transportation, crossing transportation, sea transportation, air transportation, and pipeline transportation, each of which consists of facilities and infrastructure that interact with the support of software and thinking tools. establish a system of transportation services that is effective and efficient, integrated and harmonious, which serves to serve the movement of people and/or goods between regional nodes or cities, and from regional nodes or cities to national nodes or cities or vice versa.

Local Transportation Level
Transportation arrangements that are organized in a separate system from road transportation, rail transportation, river and lake transportation, crossing transportation, sea transportation, air transportation, and pipeline transportation, each of which consists of facilities and infrastructure that interact with the support of software and thinking tools. forming a transportation service The poor condition of existing public transportation is partly due to the inadequate institutional system. It is said that it is not optimal because the parties involved in the organization of public transportation are not well organized. Each party involved has not maximally been aware of its function and role so that overall the implementation of public transport does not have a clear vision.
The public transport institutional system is defined as matters relating to who is responsible for what aspects and how the working mechanism of each aspect is carried out (Jeon & Amekudzi, 2005;Post & Preston, 2012). travel destination. (5) Route selection; determine the factors that influence route selection from each origin zone and to each destination zone.

Conclusion
Planning and realizing an effective and efficient national transportation network, it is necessary to have a systemic approach in one unit. interact with the support of software and thinking tools to form a transportation service system that is effective and efficient, integrated, and harmonious, which serves to serve the movement of people. Institutionalized organizations must establish and maintain a network in their environment to stay alive and function, by adapting themselves with the relationships in organizational life. The policies formulated by the city government should take into account all available modes of public transportation and may be utilized by the city community.